The differences of domestic terrorism and international terrorism

The differences of domestic terrorism and international terrorism The United States Code (2010) defines domestic terrorism as activities that- (A) involve acts dangerous to human life that are a violation of the criminal laws of the United States or of any State; (B) appear to be intended- (i) to intimidate or coerce a civilian population; (ii) to influence the policy of a government by intimidation or coercion; or (iii) to affect the conduct of a government by mass destruction, assassination, or kidnapping; and (C) occur primarily within the territorial jurisdiction of the United States. The United States Code (2010) goes on to define international terrorism as activities that- (A) involve violent acts or acts dangerous to human life that are a violation of the criminal laws of the United States or of any State, or that would be a criminal violation if committed within the jurisdiction of the United States or of any State; (B) appear to be intended- (i) to intimidate or coerce a civilian population; (ii) to influence the policy of a government by intimidation or coercion; or (iii) to affect the conduct of a government by mass destruction, assassination, or kidnapping; and (C) occur primarily outside the territorial jurisdiction of the United States, or transcend national boundaries in terms of the means by which they are accomplished, the persons they appear intended to intimidate or coerce, or the locale in which their perpetrators operate or seek asylum. In what ways is it functionally different from international terrorism? Functionally domestic terrorism occurs within the boundaries of the United States while international terrorism occurs outside United States boundaries and jurisdiction. Also, distinguish between domestic terrorism from above vs. domestic terrorism from below. Give examples. Terrorism from above occurs when persons who are legally empowered either covertly or overtly use, or threaten to use, political violence to maintain or defend political power within their domestic borders, or to maintain, defend, overthrow, or undermine the political power of other nations within the international community. Terrorism from below occurs when persons use, or threaten to use, political violence either to undermine or overthrow existing governmental policies or structures, or to intimidate individuals and groups they perceive as threatening to the social, political, economic, or ideological status quo (Vohryzek-Bolden et al, 2001, p. 11-12). Simplified, terrorism from above is when a government inflicts terror on the people and terrorism from below is when the people rebel against the government. Terrorism from below is usually low tech and comprises of things simple to pertain. Some specific forms of terrorism that usually fall into terrorism from below are assassination, dirty bombs, riots, and burnings. Terrorism from above can be more high tech and can use items not easily obtainable by individuals. Forms that usually fall into terrorism from above would be imprisonment, mass genocide, and nuclear and biological weapons. Some instances where domestic terrorism from below have taken place in recent United States history are; the World Trade Center Bombing that occurred on February 26, 1993, the Oklahoma City Bombing that occurred on April 19, 1995, and the 17 year long killing spree of the Unabomber from 1978 until capture in 1996. The Ku Klux Klan also committed many acts of terrorism from below against African Americans, Jews and Roman Catholics over a 150 year period. Terrorism from above occurred when the first Americans starting driving out the Native American Indians and continued to do so throughout history limiting them to where they could live, work, and worship. Other cases of terrorism from above is the 1994 Rwandan Genocide that killed over 800,000 people over the course of 100 days and the Holocaust in which the Nazis killed over 6 million Jews during World War II. Exam Question 2 2. Summarize the approaches to political violence as exhibited by Mao Tse-Tung, Che Guevara, Carlos Marighella, and Frantz Fanon. Which domestic terror groups from the past or present would you identify with these different approaches? Explain your position. Summarize the approaches to political violence as exhibited by Mao Tse-Tung, Che Guevara, Carlos Marighella, and Frantz Fanon. Mao Tse Tung, Che Guevara, and Carlos Marighella had good intentions about using political violence. These people had adapted guerrilla warfare to distinctly rural and urban locales; proposed that terror was to be used as a way to change existing political structures and transform them into Marxist governmental systems; and determined that terror was a tool to be used only to overthrow the abusers of power, never against innocent civilians. On the other hand, Franz Fanon revised their tactics by claiming that terror was a useful, justifiable means for achieving freedom and, in some cases, for acting as a cleansing force necessary to survival. Thereafter, some terrorists had devised a version of their concepts that terror was not merely to be used as a means to gain an end, but rather as an end unto itself (Vohryzek-Bolden et al, 2001, p. 69-70). Which domestic terror groups from the past or present would you identify with these different approaches? Explain your position. Like Mao, Guevara and Marighella, the protracted conflicts Irish Republican Army (IRA) and, more recently, the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA) of Northern Ireland have similar ways to deal with political violence. The troubles between England and Ireland are centuries old; the independent Irish Free State, however, was not established until 1920, after years of struggle by the illegal Irish Republican Army, which combined terrorism and guerilla warfare in its battle with England. At that time, England retained the largely Protestant northern counties of Ireland, called Ulster, and gave them special status as an entity within Great Britain. Although this partition of Ireland was vehemently opposed by the newly independent Irish Free State, it continued and developed certain legitimacy over the years. The IRA tactics, but not its goals, were immensely criticized by the Republic of Ireland during the post-independence era. Choice of tactics also led to the rupture between the PIRA and the OIRA (Official Irish Republican Army) in the early 1970s. The OIRA now tries to work for peaceful reform, while the PIRA remains a terrorist organization (Maxon-Browne, 1981). The PIRAs aim is to dislodge the British troops from Ulster and unite this area with the Republic. Through bombings in England and attacks on British soldiers in England and Northern Ireland, it hopes to wear down British resistance to unification. Each year there are tragic cases of the murder of civilians and soldiers. In 1990 a terrorist attack against the residence of the British prime minister was narrowly averted, and in 1992 the IRA stepped up its campaign of terror, with frequent bombings and bomb threats. On the other hand, Fanons approach is based on the belief that through violence the oppressed peoples of Algeria and other nations can rid themselves of their inferiority complex and from [their] despair and inaction; it makes [the oppressed] fearless and restores self-respect. Fanon views violence not only as a liberating force but also as a means to make, it possible for the masses to understand social truths and gives the key to them (Dobson Payne, 1982, p. 19). This was similar to Osama bin Laden and Al Qaidas approach. Bin Laden has used his ties with al-Qaida to conduct a worldwide campaign of terrorism. The primary goal of Bin Laden and his supporters is to liberate Palestine, with secondary goals of removing the Saudi ruling family from power and driving Western military forces and their corrupt, Western-oriented governments from predominantly Muslim countries. Most Islamic fighters have no interest in strategies of authentication or existential realization and no interest i n Marxist theories of emancipation. But, in one respect, their actions echo Fanons ideas the act of terror not only had an expressive meaning for the hijackers, but an existential meaning as well. To wit, even suicide can be life affirming (Coker, 2003, p. 291). Exam Question 3 3. In your opinion, what were the earliest forms of terrorism in the United States? Who were the perpetrators? Who were the victims? Is your opinion the same as that contained in the Vohryzek- Bolden, et al. text? Give examples. Also, explain whether you believe these early terrorists were no better (or no worse) than modern terrorists. The biggest form of early American terrorism in the United States happen when the newly settled British colonials captured, transported, and traded black Africans in America. The perpetrators were the British colonials and the victims were Blacks. I believe what the text states in that Blacks were bought and sold and treated as property of Whites. There was a legal slavery system that drove terror into all Blacks at the time. Most terrorist actions today, when carried out, only harm very few people even if the target audience is large, actual casualties are low compared to what the Blacks had to suffer through. For over 250 years blacks were forced into slavery and tortured, beaten, starved, and treated worse than a White man would treat his dog. Because of the longevity and severity of the way Whites treated Blacks, it was worse than modern terrorism. Exam Question 4 4. In what ways are right wing terror groups bonded together by racism, religion, and anti-governmentalism? Also, what role does the right to bear arms under the 2nd Amendment play with these groups? How has Odinism become a part of the equation for some? In what ways are right wing terror groups bonded together by racism, religion, and anti-governmentalism? Acts of terrorism have been around as long as people have. Today, terrorist activities have become more and more active all around the world. The 9/11 attack on the World Trade Center Towers shocked America and the rest of the world into realizing just how quick terrorism can strike. That also changed the US perception on terrorism and terrorists. Besides global terrorism, domestic terrorism has become a major concern for the US government. Right-wing extremist groups in the country are the most dangerous groups, as they pursue anti-government and racist ideology. Right-wing terror groups are generally motivated by notions of white racial supremacy. They also hold anti-government and anti-regulatory beliefs. These terror groups sometimes include extremist Christian groups that launch a crusade against people who do not hold on to traditional belief and culture (Michael, 2003, p. 131). Religion, racism and anti-government ideology have tied these right-wing terrorist groups together. They often indulge in hate crimes such as launching attacks on abortion clinics and shooting members of particular communities. These right-wing terror groups have different social, political and economic viewpoints. However, any right-wing group that has a different viewpoint cannot be termed as terrorist group. The right-wing groups involved in criminal activities are branded as terrorist organizations by the US government. Extremist right-wing groups engage in activities that are protected by constitutional guarantees of free speech and assembly. Some of the right-wing terrorist groups active in the United States are the World Church of the Creator (WCOTC) and the Aryan Nations. They propagate anti-government sentiment and racism-based hatred among people (Michael, 2003, p. 132). Right-wing extremists continue to pose a serious threat. Between 1999 and 2001, there have been several large-scale, high-casualty attacks by right-wing terrorists in the United States (Hamm, 2002, p. 68). In addition, many plans of such attacks had been foiled by the US security agencies in the past. The main objective of such groups was to create social and political chaos, thus forcing the US government to declare martial law. They believed that if martial law were declared in the country, it would ultimately lead to a violent overthrow of the government. Also, what role does the right to bear arms under the 2nd Amendment play with these groups? The Second Amendment of the US Constitution states that a well-regulated militia is necessary to the security of a free state. Hence, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed (Rodgers Tim, 2002, p. 101). The legislation has come in handy for right-wing terror groups, as they exploited it to keep and bear arms, and use them against the state. Several terms in the Second Amendment remained vague. It was argued that the right of people refers to the right of the state and common people should not be allowed to carry arms (Rodgers Tim, 2002, p. 101). However, the terms of the legislation remained the same and it let right-terror groups to possess and carry arms in the public. How has Odinism become a part of the equation for some? Odinism played an important role in the growth of right-wing terrorism. Odinism is the indigenous religious faith of the people living in Northern Europe. Later, that belief was imported to the United States. The main objective of Odinism is to free itself from Christian influences and reassert its ancient independence. Followers of Odinism are very conservative and refuse to accept responsibility for the action of others (Michael, 2003, p. 81). It has been noticed that right-wing terrorists have been greatly influenced by the Odinists. The right-wing extremist movements eclectic diversity is a secret collective of paramilitary survivalists, tax protesters, bankrupt farmers, bikers, prisoners, Odinists and devotees of the Identity Church, linked together by an elaborate network of computer boards, desktop publications and telephone hotlines (Hewitt, 2002, p. 41). Exam Question 5 5. Describe in detail the groups Greenpeace and PETA. Are either of these terrorist organizations? What is the basis for your answer? Discuss the tactics have they used from time to time. Are any of these tactics unlawful but morally justifiable? Describe in detail the groups Greenpeace and PETA. Greenpeace is an international organization that was founded in Vancouver in 1971. When the Vietnam War escalated in the 1960s, thousands of draft resisters and deserters fled the United States and arrived in Canada. Members from that exodus group formed a key role in the founding of Greenpeace (Downes et al, 2003, p. 56). The organization is known for its fight against atmospheric and underground nuclear testing. It took up several environmental issues such as global warming, destruction of forest and genetic engineering. Greenpeace has national and regional offices in many countries in the world. Ever since its inception, Greenpeace organizations have been deploying its ships elsewhere in the world to protect the environment. Rainbow Warrior, MV Sirius and MV Arctic Sunrise are some of the major ships owned by Greenpeace. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) is an American animal rights organization based in Norfolk, Virginia, and led by Ingrid Newkirk, its international president. A non-profit corporation with 300 employees and two million members and supporters, it says it is the largest animal rights group in the world. Its slogan is animals are not ours to eat, wear, experiment on, or use for entertainment (PETA, 2010). Are either of these terrorist organizations? What is the basis for your answer? Greenpeace cannot be termed as a terrorist organization, as it never uses violent methods. It raises issues that are related to environment and public health and protests using non-violent methods. However, its way of protest is very intense. Often the Greenpeace activists invite the wrath of the government and other agencies because of their nature of protest. The Greenpeace movement did not have a smooth ride. It had to encounter several problems in the past due to the oppressive nature of the government agencies. It is an irony that the tactics of non-violent protest used by Greenpeace and its system of governance have been sources of controversy. Its non-violent direct action has been termed as illegal act of civil disobedience. They are often arrested for minor offenses such as trespassing and breaking the security barriers during protest. PETA could be construed as a terrorist organization even though the actions of PETA itself are non-violent. In the early 2000s PETA made contributions to the Earth Liberation Front (ELF) and the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) activists. Both ELF and ALF are known to participate in illegal and violate acts making them terrorist. They also have been known to give money to individuals who commit violate acts in support of what PETA believes in, such as burning down research labs that perform test on animals. Even though PETA says that it does not support any acts of violence, they are guilty by association, and can therefore be classified as terrorist by supporting terrorism. Discuss the tactics have they used from time to time. Are any of these tactics unlawful but morally justifiable? There has been some criticism that Greenpeace is very conventional. Its door-to-door fund-raising that relies on media exposure has been severely criticized. The government and other agencies believe that the organizations main intent is to get cheap publicity. The Save the Whales campaign launched by Greenpeace activists was criticized by several agencies. Greenpeace had to fight legal battles against the hate tirades launched by some organizations that opposed the pro-whale campaign (Downes et al, 2003, p. 61). Ultimately, it managed to win the legal battle. In some instances, Greenpeace was found using false data in order to make its campaigns success and popular. In 1995, Greenpeace launched a vociferous campaign to compel Brent Spar oil platforms owners Royal Dutch/Shell to dismantle the platform. Greenpeace argued that the Spar contained 5000 tons of oil (Downes et al, 2003, p. 62). The efforts made by Greenpeace led to the permanent ban on the dumping of offshore installations at sea. At a later stage, Greenpeace admitted that its claim was inaccurate and apologized for misleading the public (Downes et al, 2003, p. 63). There is no doubt that Greenpeace used illegal ways to enforce the ban on Brent Spar oil platform. However, it was done in the wider public interest. The prime concern of Greenpeace was to protect the environment from any potential danger and it succeeded in it. In July 2003, the Justice Department charged Greenpeace under an old law that intended to end the practice of sailor-mongering. The Greenpeace activists had boarded the ship to protest against the import of mahogany, which was illegal in the US. However, they were arrested by the authorities (Downes et al, 2003, p. 78). Later, the case was thrown out of the court. The US government never prosecuted advocacy groups that engaged in peaceful civil disobedience. However, the prosecution of Greenpeace indicated a sea change in the US policy. Ingrid Newkirk, PETAs international president, has made comments stating that she does support freeing of animals from laboratories or any such facility even if it is by illegal means. The fact that PETA has supplied funding to individuals and organizations that have burned, broken into, and even bombed facilities that test or harm animals in any way, proves that they have committed illegal acts. But looking at it from PETAs standpoint, they do not intend to hurt anyone in the process of freeing animals. They simply want animals to be treated the best way possible and not caged, prodded, or tested on. Looking on the situation in that prospective, PETAs actions could be morally justified.

Single Sex versus Co-ed

Single-Sex versus Co-education Education is very important for both boys and girls, but the place they are being educated in is very arguable. Nowadays, it has been noticed that in a single-sex educational experience students exhibit an eagerness to participate in discussions. In Australia, the percentage of students attending single-sex secondary schools was 55% of boys and 54% of girls, in 1985. However, by 1995 the proportion of students attending had dropped to 41% of boys and 45% of girls.Let us start by onsidering the fact that studying in separate school, boys and girls, can indisputably concentrate on their studies and not get distracted easily by the opposite sex classmates. In addition to this, some religious and traditional families might be keener to educate their children in separate schools. Generally, students of single- sex schools perform better than those at co-ed schools. On the other hand, it could be better for boys and girls to study together since they should b e taught fairly. Communication plays a big role in co-education schools.It helps pupils to communicate and socialize and it is easier for them in the future as they get to interact with others while working, in colleges and universities, etc. Moreover, students at co-ed schools learn to interact better with the other gender. After weighing the pros and cons, I would say that we live in a mixed world where interactions between both genders is compulsory, whether it was a debate at work or a group discussion among co-workers. The ability to speak out without intimidation is a vital feature in each individual. Written And Discussed By: JOY

Management: Organizational Behavior Study Guide

MGT 341 Exam II Study Guide 1. Power (Article and Book) a. Meaning of Power – â€Å"The ability to influence various outcomes: or The ability to â€Å"make things happen† or â€Å"get things done† i. Individuals/Groups are presumed to have power based on the following factors: * Ability to cope with Uncertainty * Substitutability – the lower the substitutability the greater the power. * Organizational Centrality – the more central a person/group is to an organization; the greater the power. Role and Task Interdependence – if the activities of a person/group depend on the activities of another person/group -> the latter is considered to have greater control or power. b. Relationship of Power to Authority – Power and Authority are closely related to the concept of leadership. ii. Authority – Situations in which a person/group has been formally granted a leadership position. iii. Legitimate Power – formerly sanctioned by or ganization (Contractual) or informally supported by individual/group (Consensual). iv.Executive / Managerial Power – directed towards creating and maintaining an active organization – ideal of transforming the organization to it’s highest potential. c. Appointed vs. Emergent Leaders (Formal vs. Informal) d. Types of Power: Yellow = Position Power Red = Personal Power Positional Power – Organization * Appointed leaders / formal power – **Most Common Form of Power** * Easily controlled by the organization. * Attributed to the Position rather than the individual. * Appointed from upper level management. 1.Reward Power – The extent to which a person controls rewards another person values (Can give people things they want; satisfy needs). 2. Legitimate Power – Power granted by virtue of one’s position. 3. Coercive Power – The extent to which a person can punish or physically/psychologically harm someone else (do bad things to a person). Personal Power – Personal/Individual – Emergent (i. e. as the individual becomes acclimated to the environment they may â€Å"emerge† professionally or when there is a group that does not have an apparent leader figure, one will â€Å"emerge† naturally. Attributed to the Individual rather than the organization. * Not easily influenced by the organization. * Influence is â€Å"earned† or gained after â€Å"proving ones self. † Expert Power – The extent to which a person controls rewards another person values. (Can give people things they want; satisfy needs). 1. Referent Power – Exists when one person wants to be like someone else r imitates someone else. (based on admiration and respect). e. Situational Variables that can provide power. v. Ability to cope with uncertainty vi.Substitutability – The extent to which someone else in the organization can â€Å"Substitute† for someone else. (The lower the su bstitutability the greater the power). vii. Organizational Centrality – the more central a person is to the task or processes of the organization, the greater the power. viii. Role and Take Interdependence – If the activities of a person or group are dependent on that of another person/group > the latter has the power. f. Leadership Motive Syndrome – The need for power must be greater than the need for affiliation.Must refrain from being perceived as Impulsive, Coercive, or Manipulative. g. Acceptance Theory – manager's authority is derived from subordinates' acceptance, instead of the hierarchical power structure of the organization h. Power Gap – Difference between formal positional power granted and the actual power required to accomplish goals. ix. How to â€Å"Fill the Gap† > * Acquiring Information & Ideas * Assess Who has Power * Good Relationships * Interpersonal Skills * Networks (power building tool) * Create Valued Agendas Image & Track Record 2. Leadership: i. Trait Approaches: x. Focus –Early approaches focused on those personal characteristics and attributes- physical, mental, and cultural. The research is often termed the â€Å"Great Person† theory of leadership (it was assumed leaders were different from average people based on personality and physical characteristics) â€Å"leaders are born, not made†. 5 personal characteristics seemed related to effective leadership: intelligence, dominance, self-confidence, high levels of energy and activity, and task-relevant knowledge. i. Problems – Relationship between these characteristics and evidence of effective leadership is not particularly strong. In the case of each characteristic, there have been significant studies that have either not shown any relationship with effective leadership or found a negative relationship. Thus, provides an incomplete picture of leadership xii. Reemergence of Interest – reemerged as a promisi ng research area, especially in terms of examining specific traits related to the effectiveness/success in different organizational settings.Studies from the 80’s and 90’s suggest there are a number of traits that do contribute to effective leadership: Drive, leadership motivation, honesty and integrity, self-confidence, resonance, cognitive ability and knowledge of the business. Alone, these do not guarantee leadership success, but they can help for success. xiii. Key Dimensions for â€Å"Magic† or Charismatic Leadership – 3 key dimensions are envisioning, energizing and enabling. â€Å"Natural Leaders†, energize-inspire, envisioning-create & communicate image, enabling- enable other people * Linking to Results – Finding the correct quality that gives you positive results.The results should be balanced, strategic, lasting, and selfless. This link between attributes and results enriches our understanding of the relationship between leader tr aits and leadership effectiveness j. Behavioral Approaches: Focused on the various behavioral patterns or styles used by different leaders and the functions fulfilled by these individuals. xiv. Democratic – Leading through group input and decision making. xv. Autocratic – Leading by command xvi. Laissez-faire-Leading through minimal participation by the leader and allowance of total group freedom xvii. University of Michigan Studies – Research into behavioral aspects of leadership. Were concerned with two different leader orientations: one toward employees and the other toward production. The results suggested that a strong orientation to production resembled the autocratic leadership style, while a strong employee orientation was indicative of the democratic leadership style. xviii. *Ohio State Studies – Similar to Michigan studies. Two basic factors derived: initiating structure and consideration for others.See pages 214-215 xix. *Managerial Grid > Conc ern for people and production, uses 5 sections on grid, want managers to be a 9,9. Most popular Concern for People Concern for People Concern for Results (1,1) = LCP & LCR, (1,9) = HFP & LCR, (9,9) = HCP & HCR, (9,1) = HCR & LCP. 1,9| | 9,9| | 5,5| | | | | 1,1| | 9,1| * Based on a â€Å"Concern for People† & â€Å" Concern for Production† * Includes Motivation xx. Likert’s Linking Pin & System 4 ideas Likert found that the Traditional View of management (close supervision/high structure) only PARTLY explained the roles of managers. * Believed that managers are members of (2) different workgroups 1. Person is responsible FOR. > Subordinates 2. Person is responsible TO (Traditional View of Supervision). > Leaders * Power comes from the ability to excerpt power Upward and Lateral (Peer Managers) * (2) Elements must be looked at: i. Task Component ii. Human Component * Approach consists of Integrated Workgroups. * Managers are members of multiple Workgroups. xi. Sys tem 4- (participative)- supervisors trust their subordinates and goal setting and decision making are collaborative activities. k. Contingency Approaches – This perspective suggests that there is no â€Å"one best way† to lead in all situations; rather, the most effective style of leadership is contingent or dependent on the situation. Contingency theories combine the trait approach and the behavioral /functional theories to suggest the most effective leaders are those individuals who can adapt their styles to the demands of a situation, group, or values xxii.Situational Leadership – (Life-Cycle Theory of Leadership) pg 225 xxiii. Path-Goal Model – The leader affects subordinates’ performance by clarifying the behaviors (paths) that will lead to desired rewards (goals). Types of leader behaviors: directive, supportive, participative, achievement-oriented. Situational factor which influence how leader behavior relates to subordinate satisfaction: pe rsonal characteristics of the subordinates, characteristics of environment. xxiv.Vroom-Yetton Leadership-Participation Model – pg 227 xxv. Executive Coaching – Private meeting to discuss and work on personal learning and development issues. Feedback coaching (consultant)- giving feedback and assisting person in developing an action plan to address need or problems that are observed (360 feedback; 1-6 months, not too intensive) In-depth coaching (counselor)- closer, intimate relationship, multiple assessments and discussion extensively used to develop interpersonal skills, etc. 6-12 months+) Content coaching (tutor)- provide leader with knowledge and skills for specific area (IT, acquisitions, globalization, etc. ; time varies, but relatively short) l. 4. Substitutes for Leadership – Leadership substitutes: individual, task, and organizational characteristics that tend to outweigh the leader’s ability to affect subordinates satisfactions and performance. L eadership neutralizers: factors that render ineffective leaders attempts to engage in various leadership behaviors. m.Empowerment – Emphasizes a move away from leader dominance and expert problem solving to a system where organizational members, as the new experts, are continuously involved in organizational decision processes. Tannenbaum & Schmidt Leader Continuum pg 236. Keys to empowerment: 1- important for employees to have information on organizational performance and outcomes. 2-individuals must be rewarded for their contributions to organization performance. 3-team members must be provided with knowledge/skills that enables them to understand and contribute to performance. -individuals must be given the power to make to make decisions that influence work procedures and organizational direction. n. Transactional vs. Transformational Leadership. Transactional Leader- Leader-follower relation one of exchange; narrow view; supervision and â€Å"normal† leaders (mana gers) Transformational Leader(charismatic)- Visionary, inspirational figure; ability to articulate & communicate vision and charisma to energize and motivate people; strong empathy skills and accurate perception of others; â€Å"change† leaders. dark side†- transformational or â€Å"magic† leaders may become captivated by their vision of what’s best and their vision may not be appropriate. Focus on what they want to hear, do not learn easily from those around them and may damage organizational performance. i. e. cults and Hitler. Characteristics of narcissistic leaders- 1. Rely on manipulation and exploitation. 2. Impulsive and unconventional behavior. 3. Excessive impression management. 4. Poor administrative practices. 5. Unable to recognize flawed vision. 6. Fail to plan for succession.These can be quite destructive. o. Gender Issues – Stereotypes, Research Findings, â€Å"Glass Ceiling†, Relation to International Expansion Stereotypes inc lude â€Å"masculine† characteristics are managerial, â€Å"feminine† unmanagerial. Research- Men & women with high needs for power tend to have quite similar characteristics Reasons more women not in power & leadership positions mostly â€Å"institutional sexism† (glass ceiling) Many components important to international success are â€Å"feminine†- relationship development, communication, social sensitivity (&empowerment) p.Categories of Leadership â€Å"Talents† Direction- vision, concepts, & focus Drive to Execute- achieve, compete, active, ego drive Relationships- relater, developer, networks, stimulate good feelings, team oriented Management systems- performance orientation, disciplined, arranger, strategic thinker 3. Intragroup Dynamics (ESSAY QUESTIONS) q. Reasons Groups Form- Security and need satisfaction, social need satisfaction, esteem need satisfaction, proximity and attraction, group goals, economic reason. Groups are there for a rea son. . Types of Groups – Formal vs. Informal; Heterogeneous & Homogeneous Formal- are those that have established task-oriented goals and are explicitly formed as part of the organization- such as work groups, departments, and project teams. Rational, identifiable, exist to serve organization. Informal- are those that emerge over time through the interaction of organizational members. Don’t have formally assigned or stated goals, they do have implied or implicit goals, which are frequently recreational and interpersonal in nature.Formal vs. informal- a rough distinction between these types of groups is that formal groups are represented on an organization chart, while informal (self-enacted) groups are not. Homogeneous- a group whose members have key aspects in common, in terms of either personal (e. g. attitudes, values, goals) or sociodemographic (e. g. education, age, gender, race) characteristics. Heterogeneous- groups are those that differ along significant dimens ions. s. Stages of Group DevelopmentForming- group member will find out what they will be doing, the kind of leadership and behaviors that are acceptable, and the range of interpersonal and task relationships that are possible. Typically confusion, caution. Storming- described as the â€Å"shakedown†, where individual styles come into conflict. Characterized by tension, criticism, and confrontation among members. Constructive conflict can occur. Norming- resistance is overcome as the group establishes its rules/roles and standards. Develops intragroup cohesiveness, delineates (outlines) task standards and expectations.This phase is marked by cooperation, collaboration, cohesion, and commitment . Performing- Accomplish tasks. Typical characteristics include challenge, creativity, group consciousness, and consideration among members. Adjourning/reforming- Closure (celebrate, rewards). Group members must either reassess their mission, roles, and processes or prepare for dissolut ion of the group. t. Group Attributes: xxvi. Individual & Group Status- status refers to the level/position of a person in the group or a group in an organization. Status differences. xxvii.Roles – Meaning, Conflict, Ambiguity: Role refers to the various behaviors people expect from a person or a group in a particular position. Role Conflict is playing several roles that elicit certain expectations that often contradict one another. Role Ambiguity refers to when one receives unclear or ambiguous signals about what is expected of us in a particular role. xxviii. Social Identity Theory – how group affects people-:Group membership affects members’ sense of who they are, how they see themselves, how they feel about themselves and how they act in a group, they become what others expect them to be. xix. Norms – What are they; Pivotal vs. Peripheral: are the common standards or ideas that guide member behavior in established groups. Pivotal norms are those that are considered to be particularly important to the group/organization. Peripheral norms in contrast are those that are not as important to group members xxx. Status and Conformity – Relationships, Expedient vs. Private: Desire to be accepted by the group, making individuals susceptible to conformity effects. They feel pressure to change their attitudes and behaviors to conform to the groups norms or operative standards.Expedient conformity is when a group member expresses attitudes and engages in behaviors that are acceptable to the group, while holding his private beliefs that are at odds with the group. Private acceptance is when an individual’s public and private attitudes and beliefs are compatible with the groups norms.. xxxi. Cohesiveness – What it means, Factors that lead to it, Impact on people, Electronic or Virtual Groups: Cohesiveness refers to the degree to which group members are attracted to one another and the resulting desire to remain in the gro up.Factors that lead to cohesiveness include mutual attraction amongst group members, similar views, attitudes, likings, performance, and behavior. Impact on people: intergroup conflict pulls members together and encourages cooperation, such conflict may become too powerful leading to intragroup competition that reduces cohesiveness. Electronic or virtual groups can become cohesive xxxii. Group (Org) Commitment – Meaning, Affective vs. Continuance; Free Agents.Group (org) commitment is the relative strength of individual group members feelings of identification with an attachment to a groups goals or tasks. Affective(emotionally attached) commitment means they maintain a relationship because they want to have high levels of group organization comfort and job challenge. Continuance commitment means they maintain a relationship because they have concerns about potential loss of pension, benefits, and a lack of other alternatives. *do it because they have to. xxxiii. Social Loaf ing – Meaning, How Common, How to deal with it. Reduced efforts of an individual group member when they perform as part of a group compared to individual efforts. â€Å"I wont work hard because someone else in the group will pick up slack†. More common in large groups. To deal with it make sure that group members understand the importance of their assignment as well as the mechanisms for group and individual accountability encouraging active participation. u. Lost Moon Exercise – v. Groupthink – This is a dynamic that diminishes the decision making capability of a group, try’s to minimize conflict and reach a consensus.Symptoms of group think include illusion to invulnerability, collective efforts to rationalize/discount warnings, not questioning the group, stereotyped views of â€Å"enemy† leaders, pressuring members, self-censorship of deviations, illusion of unanimity, self-appointed â€Å"mind-guards†(mind-gaurds withhold informat ion from a group to keep it in tact). How to guard against Everyone be a critical evaluator, somebody play devil’s advocate, be impartial, critical thinking, take time to study external factors. w.Choice-Shift – (group polarization) occurs when the average of the group members post-discussion attitudes tends to be more extreme than average prediscussion attitudes, generally happens when everyone is already leaning in one direction, may become more extreme during virtual groups x. Brainstorming, Nominal Group & Delphi Techniques – basically â€Å"How† they operate, Role of Electronic Communications. Brainstorming-trying to expand by getting many different interacting groups and different ideas from each group Nominal group technique: no criticizing no talking to eachother or evaluating.Do evaluation, ask everyone ideas, then rank (top to bottom) confidentially and independently, then mathematically pool them. You are trying to get everyone’s opinion without people criticizing them. Delphi technique: smaller group, completely anonymous (no one knows anybody). Has one mediator. Give them each the problem and they come up with their own answers/ideas and then exchange ideas/answers with everyone else and everybody comments on eachothers ideas. Repeat the process until you come up with a general consensus. 4. Organizational Socialization: y.Meaning – A process of adaption during which entrants learn the values, norms, expectations, and established procedures for assuming a particular role and for becoming an accepted member of the group or organization z. Purpose –For new members it reduces role ambiguity and increases feeling of security since group expectations are clarified. For the group or organization the socialization process creates more behavioral uniformity among its members, thereby developing a basis for understanding and collaboration and reducing potential group conflict. . Stages – What they are ; Sequence, & What goes on in each? 3 Stages: Anticipatory socialization- can be thought of as preliminary/prepatory stage during which time a person should be provided with realistic view of organizational goals and expectations, what the persons duties/responsibilities are, and the necessary task-related skills and abilities. Entrants can assess the fit between their values and needs of organizations. Organizational or group encounter- newcomer actually joins the group or organization.Initiation period during which individual needs to balance personal and work-related demands that may conflict with one another, while simultaneously learning new tasks, clarifying role expectations and becoming acquainted with peers. Acquisition of group norms and values- If successfully accomplished, newcomer feels apart of group and becomes accepted |. Effects of Socialization on Performance-a process of adaption during which newcomers learn the values, norms, expectations for assuming a particula r role and becoming a member of an organization.It helps the group become more effective. }. Realistic Job Previews- People entering into an organization need to know what to expect with their jobs so they can prepare to cope effectively with work related pressures and demands. ~. Mentoring – Individual and Group Group mentoring- Group influence that emerges from its norms and roles provide a greater sense of phsychological support for newcomers, facilitates their inclusion and sense of belonging. Individual mentoring- Having someone with high regard/respect help coach and guide you and help you out.

A Case Study Of Nestle S.a - 1368 Words

This case study of Nestlà © S.A. will identify and analyse on a managerial issue that this company has undergone. The issue recognised is the use of child labour in cocoa production. This problem is a violation of child labour and human trafficking laws. This problem in society is completely unethical and inhumane and multiple global companies have had similar issues related to their production lines. Many articles have stated similar arguments and opinions towards this type of labour. There have been multiple multinational companies that have chosen to use cheap and foreign labour, however the ramifications of their actions lead to consumer boycotts. - Need more info on why this issue is important THEORETICAL SECTION – 600 words The†¦show more content†¦Nestlà ©Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s ‘objective is to be the leader in Nutrition, Health and Wellness, and the industry reference for financial performance, trusted by all stakeholders’ (Nestlà © Annual Report, 2014). The corporate business principles that Nestlà © makes evident are followed by all of the company’s employees and managers. 1. Nutrition, Health and Wellness The company’s main goal is to increase the quality of consumer lives by producing healthy food and beverage options. Nestlà © is also known to actively promote a healthy and balanced lifestyle. This can be expressed from their slogan ‘Good Food, Good Life’ (Nestle.com, 2015) 2. Quality Assurance and product safety The company feels that if a consumer hears the name Nestlà ©, they will associate it with high quality products. 3. Consumer Communication Nestlà © has stated that they are fully dedicated to effectively communicating with their consumers about healthier diets and allowing them to practice their right to be informed about all of their choices. Nestlà © also protects consumers’ privacy. 4. Human Rights in our business activities Nestlà © lets consumers know that they support the United Nations Global Compact’s guiding principles on the rights of humans and ethical labour. The company shows society that through their business activities they can be a good example of ethical practices. 5. Leadership and personal responsibility TheShow MoreRelatedNestlà © Alimentana S.A. - Infant Formula1636 Words   |  7 PagesSituation Analysis The case is based in the late 70’s of the past century, when after the baby boom and the appearance of third world countries (Less Developed Countries – LDC’s) mothers in general were unable to feed their children with all the needed nutrients that a normal child must have, this is basically why the infant formula was created. The infant formula was created by companies in the pharmaceutical industry and Nestlà ©. Nestlà © easily got a high market share in the industry. TheRead MoreSwot Analysis For Food Industry Essay1516 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction Nestle S.A is a leading Nutrition, Health and Wellness Company, founded in 1866. It is dedicated to the production, manufacture and distribution of healthcare goods and beverages. Their strong nutrition commitment and very popular brands are some of the main factors that have contributed with its success amongst other food companies. However, food industry may be truly complex and very competitive, therefore, it is necessary a SWOT analysis application in order to examine how the companyRead MoreCsr Nestle Case Study1338 Words   |  6 PagesCorporate Social Responsibility. Nestle Case Study. In this work I am going to address how Nestle is managing its corporate social responsibility. Firstly, I would like to give a simple definition of CSR. It is the comprehensive approach companies take to meet or exceed the expectations of stakeholders beyond such measures as revenue, profit and legal obligations. 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From nutritious meals with to baking traditions to advancing life for pets, Nestlà © S.A. makes delicious, convenient, and nutritious food and beverage products that enrich the very experience of life itself. That’s what â€Å"Nestlà ©, Good Food, Good Life† is all about. HenceRead MoreCfa Hershey Chocolate7124 Words   |  29 Pagesestimated weighted cost of capital for Hershey and industry comparable tables in the case study provided it clearly shows that the company was properly evaluated before the announcement. According to exhibit 11 for the industry comparable Hershey Foods Corporation (listed on the NYSE) has the lowest number of common shares outstanding with the highest stock price as compared to Cadbury Schweppes PLC-ADS (NYSE), Nestle S A-Spon ADR (OTC) and Wrigley (Wm) Jr Co (NYSE). Furthermore, if HFC intended to

Essay on Reasons for United States Involvement in World...

Reasons for United States Involvement in World War I At first the public opinion of Americans was firmly set on neutrality. The majority of people had little or no concerns of the affairs of the rest of the world - why should America interfere with the conflicts of other nations? Americans supported a policy of isolationism, and Democrat Woodrow Wilson was re-elected in 1916 on the grounds that he had kept them out of the war. The president also knew only too well that many Americans were unsympathetic towards Britain. There were German Americans who routed for a German victory, whilst Irish Americans disliked British rule over Ireland. On top of this, the Jewish Russians who had fled from the†¦show more content†¦Of the 1198 passengers who died, 128 of these were American. This aroused great anger in Americans, and further attacks followed as in June the German government announced passenger ships would be sunk without warning. The sinking of the Lusitania was used in British propaganda to remind the US citizens of the liv es that had been lost due to Germany, hence they should join the war to defeat them. The Germans decided to return to the policy of unrestricted submarine attacks on shipping in January 1917. The Submarines were not able to sink well-organised military ships and this is probably why passenger ships were attacked. Diplomatic relations between Germany and America were broken off by Wilson when and American liner was sunk on 3 February. This act taken by Germany was a big gamble to try to relieve the stalemate situation on the Western front, but this was an important reason towards America becoming involved in the way. That same month, Alfred Zimmerman sent orders to the German Ambassador in Mexico to try to enlist support against the US. Mexico would be rewarded with the opportunity to regain territory, supposedly theirs, which was now part of the US. The note was intercepted by the British secret service, and when it published in March, Americans were outraged and infuriated. This was another gamble, but far more reckless. The stalemate had left theirShow MoreRelatedAmerica, An Ever Changing World Superpower1504 Words   |  7 PagesAmerica, an Ever-Changing World Superpower America has been viewed in a wide variety of ways on the global stage. From the Progressive Era to containment, the view of the United States as a world power has changed dramatically. The country went through a large process of adopting an isolationist policy during the Progressive Era. This isolationist view was also present pre and post-World War I. After the bombing of Pearl Harbor, America took a bold stance and using its industrial power pushed itselfRead MoreWoodrow Wilson And The Progressive Movement888 Words   |  4 PagesThe United States of America’s involvement in World War I went against the very fabric of the country’s existence. 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Career Path On Your Future Career - 951 Words

As the last year of college has started it is time to focus your thoughts on your future career. Many of you already know what your career path will be and others are still fine tuning your choices. If you have great communication skills, are detailed orientated and have a strong aptitude for science you may want to become a Pharmacist. A Pharmacist doesn’t just hand out drugs, it is much more than that. You will need to complete a four year degree to obtain your Pharm.D. (Doctor of Pharmacy). Admissions requirements vary by program, however, all Doctor of Pharmacy programs require applicants to take postsecondary courses such as chemistry, biology, and anatomy. Most programs require at least 2 years of undergraduate study, although some require a bachelor’s degree. Most programs also require applicants to take the Pharmacy College Admissions Test (PCAT). According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, prospective pharmacists must pass two exams to get a license. The North American Pharmacist Licensure Exam (NAPLEX) tests pharmacy skills and knowledge. The Multistate Pharmacy Jurisprudence Exam (MPJE) or a state-specific test on pharmacy law is also required. Applicants also must complete a number of hours as an intern, which varies by state (2016). Pharmacists can work in hospitals, retail and grocery stores, drug and insurance companies and healthcare facilities. On a typical day a pharmacist will: †¢ advise physicians and other health practitioners on the selection, dosages,Show MoreRelatedThe Activity of Planning a Career1620 Words   |  7 PagesCareer planning is not an activity that should be done once -- in high school or college -- and then left behind as we move forward in our jobs and careers. Rather, career planning is an activity that is best done on a regular basis -- especially given the data that the average worker will change careers (not jobs) multiple times over his or her lifetime. 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Negotiation Strategies and Theories free essay sample

Most of us envision negotiations as a form of conflict where the outcome is typically one winner and one loser (or winning and losing party/group). Because both parties engaging in negotiations have something to achieve, people tend to enter negotiations emphasizing outcome and/or process goals (Katz-Navon and Goldschmidt, 2009). Differences in status, power, and gender all play highly significant roles (often times subconsciously or inadvertently) and will be discussed further analyzed in this paper. As somewhat of a disclaimer, the terms â€Å"individuals†, â€Å"groups†, or â€Å"parties† are often used interchangeably with no regard to the circumstances on how many people or entities are involved in the negotiation theories to be discussed. Negotiation theory is an interdisciplinary field that has been developed by economists, sociologists, and psychologists, and offers prescriptions for effective negotiating (Arvanitis and Karampatzos, 2011). Introspectively I would theorize that like individual’s negotiation strategy or style is much like any other personality trait in that it is inherent, and little subject to change over the long-term. We will write a custom essay sample on Negotiation Strategies and Theories or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page However, most importantly, I have no mental reservations to conclude that negotiation skills and theories can be learned and practiced to broaden ones abilities and inherent traits. Individuals whose primary focus is centered on outcome-based goals, based on their limited willingness or ability to broaden the perception of their negotiation strategy, would mainly concentrate on the final results of the negotiation (Katz-Navon and Goldschmidt, 2009). I believe this strategy has a tremendous amount of utility when you want to subconsciously lead the opposing party to believe this is your primary negotiation strategy. However, I believe this covert strategy to be effective only if one enters the negotiation with the most power. When individuals have more power than the opposed, they are less dependent on their opposition and more easily and likely to be able to satisfy their own needs and desires (Malhotra and Gino, 2011). This self-interest based strategy can often raise moral conflict if one party’s objective opposes the other, particularly along the grounds of gender or culturally based beliefs or tendencies. There are several strategies in which parties entering negotiations at a disadvantage can use in attempt to shift the power and direction of a negotiation which will be discussed further in this paper. Counter to the outcome-based strategy previously discussed, parties who are more strongly process-oriented will have the ability to formulate and deploy more comparatively malleable strategies that lead to a successful resolution of the negotiation (Katz-Navon and Goldschmidt, 2009). I believe that a majority of people would find this strategy far more constructive than the outcome-based approach. In the field of psychology, the majority of research has been focused on this decision-making perspective constituting a structured process between rational parties (Arvanitis and Karampatzos, 2011). Regardless of the negotiation strategy used, its mechanics can be analyzed based on conscious and subconscious exchanges of information (and attempts to validate claims). OBSTACLES ENCOUNTERED Negotiating individuals rely on cognitions during the negotiation process. Many times, these cognitions are erroneous ones (i. e.heuristics, stereotypes, and other biases) and significantly affect negotiation outcomes. Stereotypes commutate a fixed attitude toward a social group which are brought to the forefront of engagement during negotiation sessions. Obstacles encountered often lead to a fixed-pie bias (Dweck and Leggett, 1988), limiting the scope of what each party will be able to gain or achieve from the negotiation. Unfortunately, many of these cognitions are deeply rooted in cultural confl icts, resulting in cognitions reflecting as character traits and personal beliefs. For instance, in Afghanistan we are working towards the unification and strengthening of the Afghan government, yet the majority of its population are identify with one of numerous tribal entities who have no sense of nationality or unity with other tribal entities. The less parties understand about the limits of bargaining range and appropriate standards for agreement, the more ambiguity there is in the negotiation situation (Bowles, Babcock, and McGinn, 2009). Lacking information by not conducting proper research on the other parties(as well as their own) limits and constraints generates uncertainties about what is attainable in the negotiation. Also, perceived inequalities in status and power between negotiating parties are brought into the thick of things when cultures collide (more-so perhaps than gender-based issues to be discussed later). WAYS TO EXPAND THE PIE Both parties must enter negotiations believing that a win-win scenario is possible. One of the first road-blocks to e xpanding the pie is entering the negotiation insistent that there is only one issue or problem that is up for discussion. A similar scenario limiting pie-expanding capabilities is the rationale that the focus is on dividing the pie up front rather than enlarging the pie before dividing it. These scenarios almost always result in a win-lose type scenario. A natural counter to this scenario is to bring additional issues into the negotiation. Beneath the surface, it is always fairly likely additional issues do exist which can be strategically and carefully brought to the table. Bringing other people or parties into negotiations may also expand the size of the bargaining pie by adding additional insight or bargaining power. Additionally, this helps to avoid one reason negotiations fail by unbundling issues, or avoiding argument over a single issue. Parties should prepare themselves for negotiations by harnessing and strategizing ways to utilize their power, therefore increasing their optimism and perception of control during the negotiation (Malhotra and Gino, 2011). Those who enter negotiations focused on their lack of power (perceived or real) will be more focused on increasing their power during the course of the negotiation as opposed to being focused on more beneficial, holistic strategies that are more likely to result in a win-win scenario. Negotiators should engage in interactions by expressing interest and concern with the viewpoints of the opposing party. This helps to ensure that opposing parties are more likely and willing to engage in future negotiations and will be more receptive. Meanwhile, parties should signal their willingness to share information about their own interests as well. This creates an obvious paradox due to expectations that both parties be forth-coming and receptive, yet as in many if life’s delicate situations, revealing too much too soon can put a party at a disadvantage. Roadblocks to expanding the pie may unintentionally be set in place when people or parties believe that their interests are non-negotiable or too separate or distant from that of the opposing party, when in reality, they are not. This is known as â€Å"false conflict† or â€Å"illusory conflict. † In order to circumvent this inevitable failure, parties must avoid making premature concessions regarding the other party. Similar to the criteria contained in false conflict, â€Å"fixed-pie perception† is a view where the other party’s interests are inversely related to one’s own. In other words, not only are they too distant or separate, but they are viewed as being directly in contrast with the current parties views. CREATIVE METHODS TO CREATE ALTERNATIVES One of the most powerful ways to steer negotiations towards a more positive direction (primarily when the other party is being uncooperative) is via a strategy of making multiple offers of equivalent value simultaneously. This generates alternatives by diversifying the offer to avoid sequential declination of offers, often resulting in a â€Å"lose-lose† scenario. Rhetoric, as defined by Aristotle, is the faculty of discovering the possible means of persuasion in reference to any subject whatever (Arvanitis and Karampatzos, 2011). This can serve as a powerful tool for altering the structure and progess of negotiations and help to uncover some of the underlying principles in the opposing parties’ negotiation structure. Aristotle goes on to argue that: â€Å"That which is persuasive is persuasive in reference to someone, and is persuasive and convincing either at once and in and by itself, or because it appears to be proved by propositions that are convincing. Rhetoric will not consider what seems probable in each individual case, for instance to Socrates or Hippias, but that which seems probable to this or that class of persons† (Arvanitis and Karampatzos, 2011). Negotiators may even resort to the use of bluffing (or flat-out lying) in order to accomplish their mission. In a situation where one party has an actual (real, not perceived) disadvantage, they can render a strong emotional effect by bluffing. For instance, they may attempt to â€Å"throw-off† their stronger opposition by surprising them with a false statement that they have received a better offer or have recently found more ideal means to accomplish their own ends. When well executed, bluffing can turn the tables on the perception of power during the course of a negotiation. However, the bluffing negotiators need to have strong alternatives available, as well as heed the necessity to not over-bluff or bluff too early so they do not radiate a sense of desperation due to their lacking in status and power. DIFFERENCES IN STATUS AND POWER Power is commonly defined as the capacity to control one’s own resources and outcomes, as well as those of others (Malhotra and Gino, 2011). One of the most common way that parties seek to increase their power is to invest in and pursue outside exchange relationships to which they are the primary beneficiary towards opposing parties. For instance, in the mid-1900s, American car manufacturers spent more time and money partnering with industries that brought those cheaper materials than Japan did, giving the United States the edge in automobile manufacturing for decades until Japan’s marketed quality improvements overhauled their industry. Social role theory can be defined as the expectations which people develop for others based on their demographic attributes, coupled with beliefs on what behaviors are suitable for that role. Historically, because of economic, ecological, social, and technological pressures, women and men were assigned to labor tasks that were consistent with their physical attributes (Harrison and Lynch, 2009). In today’s workplace, as well as at home, far more women are crossing into powerful business roles traditionally held by men. In group and organizational settings, power shapes the nature of social and strategic interactions. Those who lack power will often heavily invest in the pursuit of gaining power in relationships which have the potential to shape the intrapersonal dynamics of these exchange relationships. When parties enter negotiations in which they have an advantage (perceived or real) they must err on the side of caution to ensure the opposing party is not corruptly trying to take advantage of them. Parties who enter negotiations at a disadvantage (perceived or real) are more likely to use emotional routes of persuasion, which put the opposition into a frame of mind to better facilitate the acceptance of an argument; or logical persuasion where real (or apparent) truth is readily demonstrated (Arvanitis and Karampatzos, 2011). If entering a negotiation scenario, I prefer to open my argument on a logical basis to establish validation for myself and make it more unlikely that future claims and arguments can or will be refuted. GENDER DIFFERENCES Gender differences play some of the most substantial, yet subtle roles in the negotiation playing field. A wide array of research has shown that gender-based stereotypes play a substantial role in our subconscious mind and heavily influence our strategies and performance, even without us actively thinking about it. Also, women in negotiation often reach less favorable agreements than men. In a study of MBA graduates, research found that women negotiated smaller salaries than men while both genders received comparable initial offers and engaged in negotiations at approximately the same rate (Stuhlmacher, 2007). Gender does not always matter in negotiation. Its effects are inherently bound to the particular situation (Bowles, Babcock, and McGinn, 2009). One of the hallmarks of professional organization is a culture of acceptance and professionalism without gender-bias. I am proud to have been in an Army unit that was selected to serve as one of ten pilot units for the Women in the Army program: where women would be assigned to non-combat duty positions inside of traditionally male-only combat units. While by no means perfect, the military as a whole has taken great strides to stamp out sexism, gender-bias, and sexual harassment. An array of research conducted found that women’s communication patters in negotiations differ from those of men. Women (significantly more often than men) were found to partake in more submissive communications patterns when faced with disclaimers and interruptions during bargaining sessions. Women also exhibited more cooperative behaviors than male negotiators (Walters et al. , 1998). Research also suggests that a significant amount of women (on average) actually experience the negotiation different than men (Stuhlmacher, 2007). Gender-based stereotypes play an even greater role when parties ambiguously enter a negotiation scenario or situation. Research shows that the more ambiguity there is in the negotiation situation, the more potential there is for the individual difference to affect performance (Bowles, Babcock, and McGinn, 2009). Modern technology brings us many ways to enter negotiations outside of the traditional face to face fashion. Alternative methods such as phone or email based negotiations can help to reduce or even eliminate gender-based stereotypes.